[The Merge](https://ethereum.org/en/upgrades/merge) is an upcoming upgrade to Ethereum that
will swap the existing PoW for a [proof-of-stake (PoS)](https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pos) consensus mechanism. This marks the end of mining on Ethereum. Instead, nodes can [stake ether](https://ethereum.org/en/staking/solo/#get-started-on-the-staking-launchpad) directly and earn ether rewards by running [validators](https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pos/#validators). The merge is expected to happen in the second half of 2022. Until then, Ethereum will continue to be secured by PoW miners. It is no longer recommended to purchase new hardware to participate in Ethereum mining because the chances of returning a profit before The Merge are low.
{% include note.html content=" Proof-of-work mining is no longer used
to secure Ethereum Mainnet. The information below is included because the
Ethash code is still part of Geth and it could be used to create a private
proof-of-work network or testnet." %}
Blockchains grow when individual nodes create valid blocks and distribute them to
their peers who check the blocks and add them to their own local databases.
Nodes that add blocks are rewarded with ether payouts. On Ethereum Mainnet,
the proof-of-stake consensus engine randomly selects a node to produce each
block.
Ethereum wasn't always secured this way. Originally, a proof-of-work based consensus
mechanism was used instead. Under proof-of-work, block producers are not selected randomly
in each slot. Instead they compete for the right to add a block. The node that is fastest
to compute a certain value that can only be found using brute force calculations is the
one that gets to add a block. Only if a node can demonstrate that they have calculated
this value, and therefore expended energy, will their block be accepted by other nodes.
This process of creating blocks and securing them using proof-of-work is known
as "mining".
Much more information about mining, including details about the specific algorithm
("Ethash") used by Ethereum nodes is available on [ethereum.org](https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pow/mining-algorithms/ethash).
## CPU vs GPU
Participating in Ethereum's PoW mining requires running an algorithm called
["Ethash"](https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pow/mining-algorithms/ethash). Geth includes
a CPU miner which runs Ethash within the Geth process. This might be useful for mining on some testnets. However, this is CPU mining is not viable on Ethereum Mainnet because CPU miners are easily out-competed by more efficient GPU miners. GPU mining is the recommended method for mining real ether on Ethereum Mainnet, but it is not part of the standard Geth installation. To mine using GPUs an additional piece of third-party software is required. The recommended GPU mining software is [Ethminer](https://github.com/ethereum-mining/ethminer).
Ethereum mining used an algorithm called ["Ethash"](https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pow/mining-algorithms/ethash).
Geth includes a CPU miner which runs Ethash within the Geth process. Everything required to
mine on a CPU is bundled with Geth. However, to mine using GPUs an additional piece of
third-party software is required. The most commonly used GPU mining software
is [Ethminer](https://github.com/ethereum-mining/ethminer).
Regardless of the mining method, the blockchain must be fully synced before mining is started, otherwise the miner will build on an outdated side chain, meaning block rewards will not be recognized by the main network.
Regardless of the mining method, the blockchain must be fully synced before mining is
started, otherwise the miner will build on an outdated side chain, meaning block rewards
will not be recognized by the main network.
## GPU Mining
### Installing Ethminer
The Ethminer software can be installed from a downloaded binary or built from source. The relevant downloads
and installation instructions are available from the [Ethminer Github](https://github.com/ethereum-mining/ethminer/#build). Standalone executables are available for Linux, macOS and Windows.
The Ethminer software can be installed from a downloaded binary or built from
source. The relevant downloads and installation instructions are available from the
Standalone executables are available for Linux, macOS and Windows.
### Using Ethminer with Geth
An account to receive block rewards must first be defined. The address of the account is all that is required to start mining - the mining rewards will be credited to that address. This can be an existing address or one that is newly created by Geth. More detailed instructions on creating and importing accounts are available on the [Account Management](/docs/interface/managing-your-accounts) page.
An account to receive block rewards must first be defined. The address of the account is all
that is required to start mining - the mining rewards will be credited to that address. This can
be an existing address or one that is newly created by Geth. More detailed instructions on creating
and importing accounts are available on the [Account Management](/docs/interface/managing-your-accounts)
page.
The account address can be provided to `--mining.etherbase` when Geth is started. This instructs Geth to direct any block rewards to this address. Once started, Geth will sync the blockchain. If Geth has not connected to this network before, or if the data directory has been deleted, this can take several days. Also, enable HTTP traffic with the `--http` command.
The account address can be provided to `--mining.etherbase` when Geth is started. This instructs Geth
to direct any block rewards to this address. Once started, Geth will sync the blockchain. If Geth
has not connected to this network before, or if the data directory has been deleted, this can take
several days. Also, enable HTTP traffic with the `--http` command.
The progress of the blockchain syncing can be monitored by attaching a JavaScript console in another terminal. More detailed information about the console can be found on the [Javascript Console](/docs/interface/javascript-console) page. To attach and open a console:
The progress of the blockchain syncing can be monitored by attaching a JavaScript console in another
terminal. More detailed information about the console can be found on the
[Javascript Console](/docs/interface/javascript-console) page. To attach and open a console:
```shell
geth attach http://127.0.0.1:8545
@ -86,7 +103,9 @@ If the sync is progressing correctly the output will look similar to the followi
}
```
Once the blockchain is sync'd, mining can begin. In order to begin mining, Ethminer must be run and connected to Geth in a new terminal. OpenCL can be used for a wide range of GPUs, CUDA can be used specifically for Nvidia GPUs:
Once the blockchain is synced, mining can begin. In order to begin mining, Ethminer must
be run and connected to Geth in a new terminal. OpenCL can be used for a wide range of GPUs,
Ethminer communicates with Geth on port 8545 (Geth's default RPC port) but this can be changed by providing a custom
port to the `http.port` command. The corresponding port must also be configured in Ethminer by providing
`-P http://127.0.0.1:<port-number>`. This is necessary when multiple instances of Geth/Ethminer will coexist on the same machine.
Ethminer communicates with Geth on port 8545 (Geth's default RPC port) but this can be changed
by providing a custom port to the `http.port` command. The corresponding port must also be
configured in Ethminer by providing `-P http://127.0.0.1:<port-number>`. This is necessary
when multiple instances of Geth/Ethminer will coexist on the same machine.
If using OpenCL and the default for `ethminer` does not work, specifying the device using the `--opencl--device X` command is a common fix. `X` is an integer `1`, `2`, `3` etc. The Ethminer `-M` (benchmark) command should display something that looks like:
If using OpenCL and the default for `ethminer` does not work, specifying the device using the
`--opencl--device X` command is a common fix. `X` is an integer `1`, `2`, `3` etc. The Ethminer
`-M` (benchmark) command should display something that looks like:
Benchmarking on platform: { "platform": "Apple", "device": "Intel(R) Xeon(R) CPU E5-1620 v2 @ 3.70GHz", "version": "OpenCL 1.2 " }
```
Note that the Geth command `miner.hashrate` only works for CPU mining - it always reports zero for GPU mining. To check the GPU mining hashrate, check the logs `ethminer` displays to its terminal. More verbose logs can be configured using `-v` and a value between 0-9.
Note that the Geth command `miner.hashrate` only works for CPU mining - it always reports zero for
GPU mining. To check the GPU mining hashrate, check the logs `ethminer` displays to its terminal.
The Ethash algorithm is [memory-hard](https://crypto.stackexchange.com/questions/84002/memory-hard-vs-memory-bound-functions) and requires a large dataset to be loaded into memory. Each GPU requires 4-5 GB of RAM. The error message `Error GPU mining. GPU memory fragmentation?` indicates that there is insufficient memory available.
More verbose logs can be configured using `-v` and a value between 0-9.
The Ethash algorithm is [memory-hard](https://crypto.stackexchange.com/questions/84002/memory-hard-vs-memory-bound-functions)
and requires a large dataset to be loaded into memory. Each GPU requires 4-5 GB of RAM. The error message
`Error GPU mining. GPU memory fragmentation?` indicates that there is insufficient memory available.
## CPU Mining with Geth
When Geth is started it is not mining by default. Unless it is specifically instructed to mine, it acts only as a node, not a miner. Geth starts as a (CPU) miner if the `--mine` flag is provided. The `--miner.threads` parameter can
be used to set the number parallel mining threads (defaulting to the total number of processor cores).
When Geth is started it is not mining by default. Unless it is specifically instructed to mine, it acts only as
a node, not a miner. Geth starts as a (CPU) miner if the `--mine` flag is provided. The `--miner.threads`
parameter can be used to set the number parallel mining threads (defaulting to the total number of processor cores).
```shell
geth --mine --miner.threads=4
```
CPU mining can also be started and stopped at runtime using the [console](/docs/interface/javascript-console). The command `miner.start` takes an optional parameter for the number of miner threads.
CPU mining can also be started and stopped at runtime using the [console](/docs/interface/javascript-console).
The command `miner.start` takes an optional parameter for the number of miner threads.
```js
miner.start(8)
@ -133,22 +161,31 @@ miner.stop()
true
```
Note that mining for real ether only makes sense if you are in sync with the network (since you mine on top of the consensus block). Therefore the Ethereum blockchain downloader/synchroniser will delay mining until syncing is complete, and after that mining automatically starts unless you cancel your intention with `miner.stop()`.
Note that mining only makes sense if you are in sync with the network (since you mine on
top of the consensus block). Therefore the blockchain downloader/synchroniser will delay
mining until syncing is complete, and after that mining automatically starts unless you
cancel with `miner.stop()`.
Like with GPU mining, an etherbase account must be set. This defaults to the primary account in the keystore but can be set to an alternative address using the `--miner.etherbase` command:
Like with GPU mining, an etherbase account must be set. This defaults to the primary account in the
keystore but can be set to an alternative address using the `--miner.etherbase` command:
If there is no account available an account wil be created and automatically configured to be the coinbase. The Javascript console can be used to reset the etherbase account at runtime:
If there is no account available an account wil be created and automatically configured to be the
coinbase. The Javascript console can be used to reset the etherbase account at runtime:
```shell
miner.setEtherbase(eth.accounts[2])
```
Note that your etherbase does not need to be an address of a local account, it just has to be set to an existing one.
Note that your etherbase does not need to be an address of a local account, it just has to be set
to an existing one.
There is an option to add extra data (32 bytes only) to the mined blocks. By convention this is interpreted as a unicode string, so it can be used to add a short vanity tag using `miner.setExtra` in the Javascript console.
There is an option to add extra data (32 bytes only) to the mined blocks. By convention this is
interpreted as a unicode string, so it can be used to add a short vanity tag using `miner.setExtra`
in the Javascript console.
```shell
miner.setExtra("ΞTHΞЯSPHΞЯΞ")
@ -161,14 +198,16 @@ eth.hashrate
712000
```
After some blocks have been mined, the etherbase account balance with be >0. Assuming the etherbase is a local account:
After some blocks have been mined, the etherbase account balance with be >0.
Assuming the etherbase is a local account:
```shell
eth.getBalance(eth.coinbase).toNumber();
'34698870000000'
```
It is also possible to check which blocks were mined by a particular miner (address) using the following code snippet in the Javascript console:
It is also possible to check which blocks were mined by a particular miner (address) using
the following code snippet in the Javascript console:
The etherbase balance will fluctuate because quite often a mined block may be re-org'd out
The etherbase balance will fluctuate if a mined block is re-org'd out
of the canonical chain. This means that when the local Geth node includes the mined block
in its own local blockchain the account balance appears higher because the block rewards are
applied. When the node switches to another version of the chain due to information received
@ -200,9 +239,8 @@ from peers, that block may not be included and the block rewards are not applied
The logs show locally mined blocks confirmed after 5 blocks.
## Summary
The page describes how to start Geth as a mining node. Mining can be done on CPUs - in which case Geth's built-in
miner can be used - or on GPUs which requires third party software. GPUs are required to mine real ether on Ethereum
Mainnet. It is important to note that Ethereum will swap its consensus mechanism from PoW to PoS in the second half of 2022. This swap, known as "The Merge" will end mining on Ethereum.
The page describes how to start Geth as a mining node. Mining can be done on CPUs - in
which case Geth's built-in miner can be used - or on GPUs which requires third party software.
Mining is **no longer used to secure Ethereum Mainnet**.
Joseph Cook
2 years ago
committed by
GitHub